| | The power of storytelling☆Abstract Nurs Outlook 2003;51:37-42.
In our everyday lives we hear many stories. Some reflect humor, others poignancy. Some have no specific purpose; others make a specific point in a highly effective manner. Some stories are told in a way that is very memorable; others leave the audience wondering about the key point or punch line. Stories told within families, the profession, or work settings evolved from the “oral tradition” of one's ancestors before the development of written language. Each of us tells stories every day. In addition to being entertaining or conveying information, stories are a method by which important values and traditions are conveyed to others, including the next generation.1
The word “story” derives from the Greek and means knowing, knowledge, and wisdom.2 Thus, stories help people gain knowledge about various situations and values. This article is designed to capitalize on the art and craft of telling stories so that they convey clear, powerful messages to help others expand their skills, knowledge, and understanding. Stories serve various purposes, including insight into self, role, vision, goals, and values both personally and within organizations. For a story to convey these purposes and meaning, considerable thought and skill are required.
The art  Various authors provide insight into the benefits of telling stories.3, 4, 5, 6, 7 The art of storytelling is focused on a desire to connect with the listeners in a meaningful and purposeful way, regardless of the audience size and composition. This connection is augmented by research data, which reveal that people are more receptive to stories than to data-based presentations.2 In essence, the listener is focused on the evolving story rather than the “yes, but,” defensive reaction often created with the delivery of pure data. When appropriate story selection is combined with style, drama, humor, and effective delivery, storytelling connects the listeners to the values, information, and principles of the storyteller and/or the organization. At this point, storytelling becomes an art form.8 A part of this art form is having a collection of stories that touches on each of the following categories: (1) who the storyteller is and his or her purpose for telling the story, (2) the “vision” story, (3) teaching stories, (4) values stories,6 and (5) at least one professional nursing experience story. Before accepting or being influenced by the storyteller, listeners want to know who this person is and why they should listen. An appropriate story can create trust in the storyteller and the message being conveyed. When trust and a certain rapport have been established with the listeners, it is possible to share a story that demonstrates the storyteller's dream or vision about how life can be for the listeners if they adopt the described dream or vision. As a leader, regardless of the level of responsibility, each of us teaches others. A story can illustrate whatever needs to be taught. One of the best ways to share values is by telling a story that is an example of the professed values (see the story in the next section). Each of us has at least one story or experience that can serve as a connection with the nurses who are listening. It may be a clinical story or about a meaningful experience with a colleague, and it connects the storyteller with the listeners because the human experience related is common to us all. Each of us has met a person who is a wonderful storyteller. What's more, the stories shared by this storyteller are remembered and cherished. Some people have a “gift” for telling stories, but the art and craft of telling stories can be acquired skills. For those who expend the time and energy to develop the art and craft of storytelling, a seamless, effective, memorable message will be conveyed that helps the listener gain new insights into behaviors, events, organizations, and values. The craft The craft of telling a story has its basis on the same skills and tools as those for any powerful presentation. In other words, the content and the style are the variables. A story The following personal story is an example of the development of a story for use in an organizational setting. From failures to major learning experiences Most of us, as professional nurses, have made mistakes. These range from innocuous medication errors to inaccurate assessments or decision making that may have resulted in the most grievous outcome or harm to the patient. At the beginning of my first position as director of Maternal Child Services at a tertiary care facility, I was attempting to convey to staff that mistakes are an opportunity to learn. Of course, traditionally, mistakes require incident reports, are considered bad or wrong, and usually end up in the nurse's personnel file. Incentive to report mistakes is low since such incidents are often used in evaluations. In an effort to reframe mistakes into a systems approach, I exposed staff members to the concept of the value in learning from their experiences and referred to this learning as “major learning experiences.” Shortly after the introduction of this concept, 3 nurses on the night shift were involved in a major mistake resulting in serious consequences for a patient. As often happens, there was great upset, gossip, and rumors surrounding the incident. I called the nurses and the nurse manager to my office. Needless to say they were quite anxious and concerned that they would be fired. I asked each of them to review the critical event from their perspective. At first they were uncomfortable and unclear as to the purpose or the outcome of the discussion. All 3 began by participating in blaming the equipment; the physicians; the previous shift nurses; and to some extent, each other. This was understandable as it is a normal human response to focus on blame and justification. As a result, it is not easy to look critically at errors, mistakes, or failures and take responsibility for them. When the nurses finished venting, I asked them what they had learned and what they would do differently next time. Their first response was stunned silence and confusion. However, with coaching and further questioning, each nurse identified at least 3 things she would do differently. Each one could see her responsibility in the incident. It came as a great surprise to these nurses that they would not be fired. The “cost” of their “major learning experience” was far greater than mere dollars; the patient had suffered harm. The nurses were clear that they would never make that mistake or another similar one again. Consequently, it made no sense to risk replacing them with nurses who hadn't had the same or similar learning experience. Another nurse without the specific experience might replicate their mistake. We are harder on ourselves than anyone else could possibly be. Nothing could be done to those nurses, even firing them, to make them more regretful than they already were. The gift to them was to support and teach them to relinquish blame, self-judgment, and justification of the event and their actions. Rather, they were encouraged to take responsibility for their behavior and learn from it.9 This story became part of the organizational mythology of the service area and of that particular leader, and it was shared among staff members. It conveyed the message that the leader believed in the followers in a more powerful way than most words could convey. Developing stories such as this one requires skills. Content Story development The content of the story itself can be a personal experience, a well-known public figure's experience, or a message gained from a public forum such as an article or e-mail. Dennehy3 defined the following 5 steps in telling a story. Each is critical to the other and, in some ways, hinges on the prior content.
1.Establishing the setting describes the time, place, participants, and the situation. It can convey the sense of familiarity and similarity between the characters in the story and the listeners. In the story example, staff nurses on a unit experiencing a patient care problem conveys the setting, who the participants are, the place, and the situation. If done well, establishing the setting creates a visual picture of the circumstances within the story.
2.Building the plot creates the excitement and anticipation of hearing what will happen next and engages the affective domain of learning. In the example, a nurse has done something “wrong” and has been called to the leader's office. Most nurses can identify with this situation.
3.Resolving the crisis involves creating the sense of the “ah-ha” experience; it is the obvious point of telling this story. Therefore, a crisis may be a turning point. In the example, the nurses finally believed what the leader had been attempting to teach them. They were not fired. Rather, they were given support to learn from the experience.
4.Describing the lessons learned provides a link to the key message. Even though the resolved crisis may be obvious, there is more to the story. Some individuals may not “get the point” unless the storyteller makes it clear. In the example, the point was the power and importance of learning as opposed to punishment. Another lesson was in the demonstration of strategies by the leader to the nurse manager regarding dealing with difficult situations. Another lesson could be the importance of taking responsibility for one's own actions, not for the sake of others but for one's own sake. The identified key lesson could depend on the audience of the story.
5.Explaining how the characters change helps people see how they, too, can adopt new behavior. In other words, this fifth step leads back to reinforcing how this story relates to individuals. In the example, the nurses identified their learning, altered their behavior, and were clear as to why they were continuing to work on the unit. The story identified the basic values of the leader. From that time forward, the focus was on learning rather than punishment. One of the key purposes of a story is to demonstrate the values held by the leadership of the organization.10 In the example, this shift in values supported new behavior on the part of the staff.
Creating your own stories Stories told in organizations are most effective when they focus on teaching, inspiring, motivating, and adding meaning. Stories work best when they evolve from personal experience, ideas, and questions that relate to the issues at hand. Often what listeners want to hear is a “where do we go from here” story. Without conscious thought about creating stories, it may be difficult to tell a relevant story from which listeners can relate and gain hope. Kaye and Jacobson5 provide some detailed guidelines for creating personal stories. The authors believe that the following suggestions are key strategies for creating stories:
•Look for themes. Look for recurring themes in life. What actions have occurred that represent one's values, priorities, concerns, interests, and experiences? Think of times when adversity was overcome, scarce resources were secured, or obstacles and challenges were surmounted. The story shared in this article is one example.
•Look for consequences. Examine the cause and effect of choices that have been made. Each prospective storyteller might review his or her life chronologically. One thing happened or a specific person was encountered that led to the next experience or facilitated a subsequent event. If one searches for consequences of choices or chance meetings and notes how these led to the next event, one's life takes on a completely different meaning and becomes more interesting and instructional. Thus it is possible to create meaning rather than merely recite an incident.
•Look for lessons. When reflecting on life incidents, ask the question, “What did I learn from that?” What was learned that influenced subsequent actions or behavior? How was the storyteller changed in some way by the incident or experience? Was there an “ah-ha” or “light bulb moment” while participating in a strategy session, a budget meeting, or supervisory session? Sometimes the “ah-ha” occurs after the event as we reflect on the experience. It is likely that such moments have value for peers, supervisors, and others if they can be shared as a story that emphasizes the lesson learned. Frequently, a leader provides a didactic lecture when attempting to impart information or knowledge regarding interpersonal relations, persistence, patience, or other aspects of organizational life. However, when the same content is shared in a recalled life experience that demonstrates a personal lesson, it is much easier to hear the idea and incorporate it.
•Look for what worked. Recall personal and professional successes. When one reflects on successes that might make good stories, scrutinize them for hidden meaning and principles. The meaning and principles are what make the stories transferable to the listeners' lives. In examining one's successes, define exactly how the events led up to the successful outcome. What were the essential contributing factors (eg, timing, resources—both human and financial, strategy, vision, or another leader). Such elements are the underpinnings of the experience that led to the eventual success or “what worked.”
•Look for vulnerability. Identify any personal imperfections. Doing this publicly with peers and staff builds trust.11 The best stories come from mistakes, failures, and derailments. These stories stimulate the listeners to explore better approaches to problems and vicariously experience the pain and frustration of negative results. Many stories do not have a happy ending and are often more spellbinding or mesmerizing because of the unhappy outcome. When leaders tell this kind of story, they show their vulnerability as well as their resiliency. Trust is increased. It is much more credible to share stories both with mistakes and successes.
•Build for future experiences. Be creative. There is much to be learned from one-time experiences that can then be developed into a “what if I were in a similar situation?” It is valuable to imagine what one might do in a specific situation. Noticing how a project is being managed, how a presentation is being prepared, or how a person is being coached can provide possibilities for how to create scenarios for handling certain situations. Imagination can produce learning that is as powerful as the actual experience.
•Explore other resources. Stories from classic literature, leadership/management books, or even movies can help. Most people who have seen Gone with the Wind can recall that draperies have more than one purpose. From Peter Senge's book The Fifth Discipline the power of a shared vision becomes clear from his retelling of the story of Spartacus, the Roman gladiator slave who led the slave rebellion of 71 BC. From the classic movie Field of Dreams comes a powerful understanding of the importance of saying good-bye in the process of completing relationships. Family stories told by parents or grandparents can yield a wealth of sage advise. Nearly every family has an “Uncle Harry,” and even though this person's personality and behavior would have to be explained and the meaning of his or her stories adapted to the workplace, such stories can have immense power.
Devote 15 or 20 minutes each day to reflect on various life experiences and their meaning. In a serious effort to learn about telling stories, it is helpful to record at least key points in a small notebook just for stories or experiences.12 If a story is developed that has some learning or new insight and has a shared meaning that facilitates a broader understanding of what is helpful or important in the work setting, then communication through storytelling has begun. Style The style developed by the storyteller is unique to that individual and influences his or her success. Some people use humor, others use a “folksy” down-home style, and some can play a heavy regional or ethnic accent or stereotype. Whatever style is emphasized must be real and sincere because listeners instantly recognize insincerity. Presentation skills Style also depends on the skillfulness with which the storyteller conveys the story. Strong presentation skills are important in telling stories. Simmons6 describes several aspects of presentation that are important to storytelling. These range from language and tonality to facial expressions and body language and are reviewed in Table 1.
 | • Oral language: Words must reflect the emotion and show action or feeling. As an example, using the word, “roared”, conveys a different emotion than merely saying “laughed.” | |
| • Tone: Because a story represents an experience, the tone should be informal. In other words, to be effective, the story must sound as if the speaker is sharing an experience or perspective rather than providing a report. Tonality conveys emotions such as anger, sadness, misery, happiness, euphoria, etc. Tonality also involves volume and can range from hushed whispers to screams of fear. | |
| • Facial expressions: As with any typical storytelling episode, facial expressions help emphasize various points. For example, the wolf in Little Red Riding Hood looks very different when posing as the grandmother than when the wolf is merely the wolf. Facial expressions and tonality most often need to be congruent. | |
| • Body language: Body language refers to how we use gestures, posture and movement. For example, rather than using a lot of words to describe conversation transitions between speakers, taking a different physical position (standing tall, turning left, etc.) can convey the various characters in a story. | |
| • The senses: Word choices combined with facial expressions, gestures and body language help convey the senses. Think about the difference between describing an ice cream cone and actually smacking and licking lips! Engaging as many senses as possible helps make the story memorable. | |
| • Irrelevant detail: Irrelevant details are those elements that don't really matter to the story, but they help convey a mental image so that the listener is transported within the story itself. Virtual reality: Much of the influence in storytelling is about who you are rather than what your role or position is. You can convey aspects of the story such as confusion or wonderment about what will happen next or surprise and delight in a virtual way simply by feeling those feelings. If you experience these emotions yourself, the listener will also. | |
| • Pacing the story: Pausing before the key point or punch line allows people to do a quick run through of what they have heard thus far and creates anticipation for the climax. On the other hand, rushing through various parts of a story can build up the feeling of tension and how overwhelming the events are. Pacing and timing are often critical particularly in the use of humor. Most of us remember how effectively Jack Benny, the comedian, used pacing and timing. | | | | |
Unless the purpose is humor or comedy, tonality and facial expression need to be congruent. All of these strategies are used everyday and emphasize the drama or comedy of the story. However, it is important to be conscious of these strategies. Overcoming storytelling pitfalls Style also involves some pitfalls, that is, behaviors to be avoided while telling stories. For example, an unskilled storyteller might leave the audience expecting more. Either the audience thinks there must be more to the story or they don't see the relevance of the story to their own lives. The story could be so lengthy and rich in detail that the listener gets lost. Sometimes a story has so many characters that listeners have difficulty following the complexities of the plot. Strategies to address these common pitfalls are found in Table 2.
| • Debrief at end: Some very skilled storytellers finish the story and sit down. That is effective if the message was totally clear and the audience followed the story. Otherwise, a debriefing at the end of a story helps people understand the key message. Explanation of “what this means to you” doesn't leave to chance that the audience heard the message as the presenter intended. | |
| • Keep within the attention span: Most of us can follow stories that last for a few minutes. When the story becomes complex, for example numerous characters are included or the story is long, listeners may become engaged in the details rather than the key messages. So, stories need to be clear and brief in order for an audience to remain engaged with the key points. | |
| • Match the anticipation with the outcome: Stories that end with, “and then he woke up” typically are frustrating. In other words, the suspense built up to the point that listeners wanted resolution to the story. The mismatched outcome of merely waking up didn't fit with the anticipation of the resolution. So, in general, the more dramatic the story is should indicate how important the outcome is. | |
| • Match the story for the audience: Obvious examples of matching the story with the audience include being gender and role sensitive. But, knowing what has happened for a group prior to telling a story is critical. For example, telling a personal story when a major tragedy has occurred may feel insensitive to many listeners. So the match is not only about who the audience is but also who the audience is with regard to the current situation. | |
| • Keep stories fresh: It is possible to tell the same story many times. But, the story must be connected to current events to seem fresh. Additionally, it is important to reenergize yourself in telling an established story. Think how deadly the same fairy tale could be unless you could reenergize yourself each time the story is told. | | | | |
Strengthening the story Finally, the storyteller usually can find helpful hints that assist in developing as well as relating the story. Table 3 describes 7 strategies to strengthen stories, such as drawing listeners into the story and leaving them feeling hopeful.
| 1. Be Specific. Specifics and individual persons are much more interesting than theoretical concepts and abstract discussions. A storyteller enchants an audience while the dry intellectual can lose the plot while explaining some general theory. Even an intellectual can tell a story from the perspective of the average person or use a story to introduce theoretical concepts. | |
| 2. Stop talking. This may seem simple, but next time you are rambling (tell, tell, telling about budgets, facts, theories or data) you will find out how hard it is to stop. Look for slightly glazed over eyes. When you sense the listeners are bored, simply stop or ask for questions. “What questions do you have?” may not be adequate to involve the audience if they are disengaged. It may be necessary to ask “how, when or where” questions. Avoid asking “why” questions as these often elicit a defensive response. The audience will let you know if they want you to continue. | |
| 3. Bring your listener into the dilemma. When telling a story, ask a question, even a rhetorical one. Joke with the listeners. Pull a story from the group as a way to involve them in the process. For example, “Have any of you had a similar experience? Been stuck? Not known what to say next?” They can authenticate your problem or ideas. If you become nervous or lose your place, be honest. Admit it. | |
| 4. Don't illicit Fear or Guilt in the listener. Stories that do this may seem like they work in the short term but are counterproductive in the long run. Overdoses of fear or guilt immobilize people. | |
| 5. Intrigue and Captivate. Talk about the hopes and dreams of the listeners as well as their pet peeves or secret fears. Talk in specifics. This provides connection. Relate something you know personally regarding what a staff nurse, a student or a patient's family member told you when you were making rounds. Authenticity is interesting, passion is interesting. Authentic human tragedy and comedy are interesting. Being superficial or playing it safe is never interesting. Add color–sound effects–pantomime. | |
| 6. Connect at the Level of Humanity. Use common experiences we have as human beings. We all want someone to love; we all want someone to love us. We want our children to be healthy, successful and happy. We all want to feel we are doing a good job. Tell a personal story about any of these and you will connect people to their common humanity. | |
| 7. Leave them Feeling Hopeful. To influence, you must provide your listener with hope for a future that is reachable or worth their effort. You can only nurture others' hopes with your own. The most common reason people fail to influence is that secretly, they have lost hope, feel powerless, or have become lost in contempt for the people they hoped to influence. Powerful stories need heart. Find your hope and hold onto it. | | | | |
These strategies can serve as a checklist to convey the content as well as the meaning of the story and to do so successfully. The integration Pulling the art and craft together creates an effective whole. One can be most adept with the craft of storytelling; but if there is no point to the story, its potential for learning is lost. Being able to use the craft and making certain that the 5 steps of story development are present helps to make points clear and, more importantly, memorable. Stories allow us to take a basic list of key points or steps and make them so memorable that the listeners don't even need a handout. Rather, they leave with a vivid mental picture, complete with words, feelings, and actions, to implement the key lessons in their own lives. The power of telling stories People anticipate learning from stories because that is how their earliest learning occurred. In the US culture, bedtime stories were among most people's learning experience. The telling of stories allowed children to be transported to a different situation, time, and place while learning something that might not be conveyed in any other manner. Stories, fables, and parables were used to quickly disseminate information while conveying meaning and understanding. Early messages were simple—the rights and wrongs of behavior. Yet, adults see those same stories in more complex forms. Telling stories about the desired behavior that is universal to the group helps to create organizational change. Context conveys emotions, triggers individual and group memories, and provides intuition and insight into events. Typical stories are those that tell of success of an individual or a group and convey the motivation and values important to success. A good example is related by Collins and Porras13 in their best selling book, Built To Last. During the 1982 Tylenol crisis, when 7 people died in Chicago as a result of product tampering, Johnson & Johnson removed all Tylenol capsules from the US market, even though the problem was localized in Chicago. This decision, which cost the company $100 million, was made on the basis of the company's mission and values, which state in part, “We believe that our first responsibility is to the doctors, nurses, hospitals, mothers, and all others who use our products. Our products will always be of the highest quality. ” The Washington Post wrote, “Johnson & Johnson has succeeded in portraying itself to the public as a company willing to do what's right, regardless of cost.” The company regained the lost $100 million in fewer than 6 months. In a recent seminar, one of the participants was an employee of Johnson & Johnson during the 1982 crisis. He related to the entire group what an incredible experience it had been to work for a company that exhibited that kind of integrity and commitment to the customers. Not a single person was untouched by his story. Many listeners don't realize how powerful their experiences are until a story evokes a connection that data or statements alone cannot illicit. Summary Telling stories is grounded in the earliest forms of conveying cultural standards. It is not necessarily a lost art; rather it is one we need to rediscover or emphasize. Unlike other forms of communication, stories are a safe way to convey messages that engage the affective domain rather than only the cognitive. Capitalizing on the art and the craft produces a powerful potential to create memorable legacies.■ References 1.
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New York: Harper Business; 1994;. Patricia S. Yoder-Wise is a professor at Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, Texas. Karren Kowalski is president of Kowalski & Associates Consulting, Castle Rock, Colorado ☆ Reprint requests: Patricia S. Yoder-Wise, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Nursing, MS 6221, Lubbock, TX 79410. PII: S0029-6554(02)05454-4 doi:10.1067/mno.2003.2 © 2003 Published by Elsevier Inc. | |
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